Gender Identity Essay -- Sociology, Gender Scheme Theory

The development of gender sensation is fundamental for our sense of self and is also predominant in any assessment made of another person as from birth on people respond differently to manlys and females. Gender identity sess be seen as one of the earliest social categories that children learn to apply to some(prenominal) themselves and other people. This is suggested in Schaffers (1996) definition where gender identity is the correct labelling of self and others as male or female. There are three main theories that have been explored which all suggest multiple ways in which gender alive(predicate)ness is developed Bandura, Kohlburg and the Gender Scheme Theory. Firstly, Bandura (1977) notes that the idea that social influences clearly plays a very significant role in the development of gender identity. Socialization makes children aware that there are differences between male and female, and that these sex differences matter. These social pressures also suggest there are speci fic gender stereotypes that they are expected to adapt to. Nevertheless, it can also be seen that biological and cultural changes interact with these social factors, thus defining how an individual eventually develops the gender identity of a firearm or a woman. An alternative theory, expressed by Kohlburg (1966), suggests that children are not the recipients of any physical information from social experiences and therefore they search for specific regulations which pull up stakes explain the way in which males and females are expected to behave. In addition, gender tends to be the first thing a parent wishes to find about their child. It can be suggested that from then on the child will be treated depending on the fact that they are male or female. This is shown in research attempting to cla... ... both masculine and feminine toys. Generally, parents gave positive responses to their pre-school children when they chose same-sex toys but negatively to cross-sex toys, thereby rein forcing their childrens sex role differentiation. On the other hand, according to Fagot (1985), sex-differentiation like that viewed in the previous study was not found in the teachers in charge of a group of 2 year olds. In this study, it was the children themselves who gave their peers engaging in sex-appropriate doings positive feedback of one kind or another. Again, boys were more likely to be disapproved of for girly behaviour and were thus quickly given the chance of learning what is not male and so encouraging them to drop those behaviours or activities in their repertoire. Nevertheless, there are criticisms of these social influence theories on sex role development.

The Civil War Essay -- American History, War

The growing decline in morale and suffrage on the Confederate home earlier lastly led to its collapse between 1864 and 1865. Seeing as it was the main arena for combat during the Civil War, the southeastward felt many effects from the war (N). The pro great war ultimately led to an economic decline and lack of resources in the federation along with a negative sentiment among southerners (N). Due to the internal demise, the Confederacy could not carry on a war without the support of its home front. Beginning with the onset of the war, differences between the northern and southern economies and resources proved to be detrimental to the Confederacy (N). The north contained the majority of the factories, iron works, and railroads in the United States (N). Agriculture in the north was based on cereal crops whereas the south depended on raw material crops (N). In addition, the north contained the majority of the financial assets in the United States and allowed them the ability to fight a prolonged war (N). The south, lacking economic diversity and financial affluence, could only sustain itself for so long before its scrimping collapsed and the effects threatened the livelihood of its home front (N). As the war continued to escalate, the south began to feel the effects of its inadequacies (N). Due to the lack of transportation resources and the blockade established by the Union, the south was unable to import and export goods needed to maintain its economy (N). The diminishing availability of goods led the Confederate organisation to search for alternative measures to obtain the financial support required to continue the war (N). The Confederate government decided to pass a progressive income tax and excise tax on goods (N). In additio... ...federacy that it would be too difficult to continue a long drawn out war, especially with its home front in turmoil (T 288).The Civil War was a war in which both sides, the Union and Confederacy, pass judgmen t a war which would subside quickly (N). With the north having a diverse and abundant number of resources, it was able to fight the war as long as was required (N). As for the Confederacy, from the beginning, it was destined to have its hardships (N). Since most of the war was fought along the home front of the south, the south faced more disparities than the north (N). The home front ultimately played a considerable role in the collapse of the Confederacy. Furthermore, Shermans march and the election of 1864 contributed to the inability of the Confederacy to continue the war. The south had a good run, but in the end, its own internal turmoil failed it.

To work or not to work? :: Journalism Journalistic Papers

To work or not to work?Why the educated homemaker is opting out of the workplace and why other women are notIts 5 a.m. and Laura Williams squints at her computers bright light. She presses the letters on her keyboard and replies to as many emails as she can before another bad-tempered day at her full-time job begins.After she makes breakfast for her family, her husband Ryan gets their daughters, Emma, 4, and Anna, 18 months, ready. Then the Williams family sets out to debark Emma at pre-school, and then mom and Anna drop dad at work.Sounds like your typical family morning the family gets ready, the kids go off to school, and mom and dad go off to work, right? Well, sort-of.Seven years ago, 29-year-old Laura Williams was support the professional life she always imagined. Armed with a degree in social work from Cornell, Williams had an impressive resume that could practically name her job of choice. simply today, shes living the life she never imagined she would have shes a provi ncial mom.Williams is a part of a growing national trend where educated women earning good salaries temporarily opt out of the workplace to take care of their children. With professional experience ranging from public relations at XEROX to handling media affairs for 1997 U.S. Poet Laureate Robert Pinsky at Boston University, Williams had employers from Rochester, N.Y. and Cambridge, Mass. offering her higher paying and higher power jobs. But the newly married, successful professional was also thinking near starting a family. So Williams turned down these career advancing offers and continued at the Boston University Public Relations Office.I knew early on that I did not want an 80-hour per week job, said Williams. Getting a graduate degree, working part-time, and starting a family are three things that did not mesh.Williams, 36, who draw herself as a go-getter, said she always felt ambitious while growing up.I knew I wanted to work professionally, she said. I always public opinio n I would work part-time and have children. But after working at BU through her first pregnancy and simultaneously taking graduate classes at the university, Williams became anxious yet she wasnt ready to walk away.This was definitely the most stressful time in my life, said Williams, whose own mom was a stay-at-home mom. At the time you think you can do it all, but finally I approached my boss and convinced him to let me work from home.

Anagnorisis and Existence (Rosencrantz and Guildenstern) :: essays research papers

Anagnorisis and ExistenceThe Point of Realization in Stoppards Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are DeadIn Shakespeares settlement, the young prince realizes what living is. Yea, from the table of my memory Ill wipe away all trivial fond records, 105 All saws of books, all forms, all pressures past, That callowness and observation copied there And thy commandment all alone shall live Within the book and volume of my brain, Unmixd with baser matter (Hamlet, I, v. 104-110)Upon realizing his fate that he must save the affirm of Denmark Hamlet must literally discard his prior intimacy and start anew. Aristotle argues that the exact moment when Hamlet realizes his fate by moving from innocence and ignorance to knowledge is the cause of tragedy in drama. Aristotles calls this realization that all gays must have anagnorisis. For all the moaning and a whining about his situation, Hamlet will defend whatever is rotten in the State of Denmark. (Hamlet, I, iv, 67) Though this self discov ery is integral in Shakespeares tragedy, Stoppards two characters do not flush address their fate. And, the result of this lack of action and lack of any anagnorisis in Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead when framed against the proactive Hamlet, Fortinbras and Laertes is an interesting commentary on human beings reactions to mortality.Death is not romantic, and death is not a game which will soon be over Death is not anything death is not Its the absence of presence, null more the endless time of never coming back a gap you cant see, and when the wind blows through it, it makes no sound. (R&D, 124)To Rosencrantz and Guildenstern, death is lying in a box bored. Their inability to comprehend deaths complexity stems from the fact that even when alive, they are hardly present, provided hanging onto their existence. If we stopped breathing wed vanish. (R&D, 112)Part of Rosencrantz and Guildensterns lack of existence is Stoppards emphasis on the seeming interchangeability of their identities. However, whereas in Hamlet the King, Gertrude and Hamlet mistake the two for each other, Rosencrantz and Guildenstern actually mistake themselves. Their lack of identity leaves the two characters as not human they literally do nothing and do not develop. It is for that reason that, though they discover their fate, Rosencrantz and Guildenstern literally cannot die they dont actually exist. So, when the time comes for their fate to catch up to them, they literally disappear.

Grandpas Lap :: essays research papers

                     Grandpas Lap     She seems to be at ease. Her face was completely consumed by her smile. She was in what tangle like a safe place. Grandpas lap always felt like a safe place. He was her hero. He would protect her from anything and everything that may come her way. He was a brave warrior who would take on the world for her if he had to.          He smelled of Old Spice and cheap chaving cream. It was a comfortable smell. It was the kind of smell that made her want to curl up next to him. She would always look upon him shave in the morning. She would often wonder why she couldnt shave like Grandpa. Once he shaved half of his beard off. He said, "If you like me with a beard look at this side, and if you like me better without, look at the other side." He was silly like that a lot. He was always sing while he shaved. I t was always a silly song she guessed. He only hummed because the words to the songs were too dirty for a little girls ears. He was in the nauticals after all. he didnt know any frilly songs. Only the hearty, manly, dirty songs. He would sometimes sing her a nursery rhyme when no genius else was around.           Grandpa was a special man. He retired from the marines, but never retired from the lifestyle. "One can take a man out of the marines, but you cant take the marine out of a man." This was one of Grandpas darling sayings. The marine really does stay in a man. It added to Grandpas loving personality. It added a feeling of security. It added a lot.          Grandpas lap was her favorite spot. The big chair wasnt the same when Grandpa couldnt sit in it any longer. Once he was gone, no one would really sit there. He use to tickle her if she took his seat.

Grandpas Lap :: essays research papers

                     Grandpas Lap     She seems to be at ease. Her face was completely consumed by her smile. She was in what tangle like a safe place. Grandpas lap always felt like a safe place. He was her hero. He would protect her from anything and everything that may come her way. He was a brave warrior who would take on the world for her if he had to.          He smelled of Old Spice and cheap chaving cream. It was a comfortable smell. It was the kind of smell that made her want to curl up next to him. She would always absorb him shave in the morning. She would often wonder why she couldnt shave like Grandpa. Once he shaved half of his beard off. He said, "If you like me with a beard look at this side, and if you like me better without, look at the other side." He was silly like that a lot. He was always busyness while he shaved. I t was always a silly song she guessed. He only hummed because the words to the songs were too dirty for a little girls ears. He was in the shipboard soldiers after all. he didnt know any frilly songs. Only the hearty, manly, dirty songs. He would sometimes sing her a nursery rhyme when no iodine else was around.           Grandpa was a special man. He retired from the marines, but never retired from the lifestyle. "One can take a man out of the marines, but you cant take the marine out of a man." This was one of Grandpas popular sayings. The marine really does stay in a man. It added to Grandpas loving personality. It added a feeling of security. It added a lot.          Grandpas lap was her favorite spot. The big chair wasnt the same when Grandpa couldnt sit in it any longer. Once he was gone, no one would really sit there. He utilize to tickle her if she took his seat.

Why Marijuana Should Be Decriminalized

Connor Biro 2577567 English 102 Price 4/5/13 Why marihuana Should Be Decriminalized in the U. S. Marijuana, in its natural form, is one of the most therapeutically active substances known to man (qtd. in Rosenthal and Kubby 49). The DEAs Administrative Law Judge, Francis L. Young, express this in the matter of Marijuana Medical Rescheduling Petition, in 1988 when attempting to list cannabis as a Schedule II drug (Keene 93). Marijuana, or weed, is made from the leaves and flowers of the halter plant cannabis sativa.In 1937, cannabis was made illegal with the passage of the Marijuana Tax Act. Since it was criminalized, billions of dollars have been spent in marijuana link incarcerations. Marijuana function should be decriminalized in the join States for both medical examination and recreational implement beca phthisis it could prove medically, economically, and socially beneficial for the nation. The first reason marijuana should decriminalized in the United States is for its medicinal value. Marijuana can be used to treat an assortment of diseases and disorders, and also helps in pain relief.Patients suffering from glaucoma, an ocular disease where the mettle is survey to increased pressure that damages the optic nerve, eventually leading to blindness, can be treated with marijuana to help reduce the pressure on the eye (Keene 92). For individuals suffering from epilepsy, a brain disorder in which an individual may has repeated seizures over time, marijuana can potentially prevent seizures at a very affordable price (Rosenthal and Kubby 50). Marijuana also helps relieve the side effects of chemotherapy, which include loss of appetite and nausea (Keene 91).Finally, marijuana helps individuals suffering from continuing pain caused by diseases much(prenominal) as fibromyalgia, arthritis, and cancer (Rosenthal and Kubby 50). Although, it appears that marijuana should be available at every pharmacy, behind every counter, after reading somewhat its medic inal properties, it is not. The second reason marijuana should be decriminalized in the U. S. is because it can improve our nation economically. So far marijuana has been legalized in 14 states, for medical use only. If marijuana were to be legalized more jobs would be reated, more money would be made in advertising businesses, and a significant amount of levy tax income made (Bradford). By comparing the taxes of liquor and cigarettes, it is concluded that the organisation could make about seven billion dollars a year in revenue just from state licenses, taxes and fees (Rosenthal and Kubby 26). Marijuana does not only provide medical uses, but industrial uses as well. Hemp, the nonpsychoactive sister of marijuana, is a very strange plant that has many useful qualities. Hemp has the prospicientest fiber in the plant kingdom and is also known for its very strong and durable characteristics (Rosenthal and Kubby 28).The industrial applications that balancer can be used for include insulation, textiles, clothing, paper and most importantly, rope (Rosenthal and Kubby 28). In ancient China (around 8000 or 7000 B. C. ), archaeologists have found proof that hemp was a main crop for thousands of years, originally used as fabric, then eventually the Chinese found other uses worry using the hemp fibers for rope and paper, and even mixing it with other grains as a food source (Keene 29). If marijuana were to be legalized, the manufacturers could export products such as the ones previously mentioned.As long as marijuana remains an illegal import, there is no way for the government to regulate its sale as well (Rosenthal and Kubby 75). The final reason marijuana should be decriminalized in the U. S. is because it can prove to be socially beneficial to the nation. Marijuana is listed as a Schedule I drug, along with heroin, LSD, and PCP, meaning the government believes it has a high potential for abuse, there is no current medical use in treatment in the U. S. , and th at there is no acceptable use even under medical supervision (Rosenthal and Kubby).Millions of arrests and thousands of people are thrown in jail for marijuana charges, ranging from minor moroseenses, such as paraphernalia, to major offenses like illegally importing marijuana into the U. S. Police officers shouldnt be wasting their time arresting youths with minor offenses like marijuana possession. If marijuana was decriminalized, teenagers arrested with minor charges related to marijuana would not have their lives ruined with marijuana-related crimes on their record (Rosenthal and Kubby 81-82). Another reason the nations society would be improved is by removing the girlish adults from the marijuana business.These young entrepreneurs succumb to the fast, easy money involved in dealing marijuana and ruin their chances of having a bright future. Marijuana should be decriminalized so the nation can benefit medically, socially, and economically. Legalizing marijuana just seems like t he most logical thing to do, especially when the nations government is in such a tremendous amount of debt. It is presently legal to own and smoke small amounts of marijuana in Colorado and Washington. Over 65 million Americans use marijuana either occasionally or regularly (Rosenthal and Kubby IX).So why waste millions of dollars on the criminalization of marijuana charges, and lose the opportunity to make money off of this highly used plant? Citations Keene, Ann. Marijuana Its Effect on Mind & Body. New York Chelsea House Publishers,1992. Print. Rosenthal, Ed, and Steve Kubby. Why Marijuana Should Be Legal. New York urban center ThundersMouth Press. 2003. Print. Bradford, Harry. 14 Ways Marijuana Legalization Could Boost The Economy. The HuffingtonPost. TheHufiingtonPost. com, Inc. 7 November, 2012. Web. 1 April. Should Marijuana Be a Medical Option? Medical Marijuana. ProCon. org, Inc. 6 May, 2009. qWeb. 28 March.

Foreign Trade of China

immaterial barter of mainland mainland chinaware K. C. Fung University of California, Santa Cruz Hitomi Iizaka University of California, Santa Cruz Sarah Tong University of Hong Kong June 2002 Paper prepargond for an inter millject field conference on chinas Economy in the 21st Century, to be held on June 24-25, 2002, Hong Kong. We would like to thank Alan Siu and Richard Wong for their encouragement. 1. Introduction On December 11, 2001, mainland chinaware semioffici all in ally joined the human manage brass section (WTO) and became its 143rd member. chinawares presence in the demesne economical system leave continue to grow and deepen. The contrary get by sector plays an cardinal and ulti formulationted role in chinas frugal development. At the equal time, Chinas expanded role in the world economy is skilful to all its business break upners. Regions that slyness with China benefit from cheaper and more(prenominal) varieties of merchandise consumer goods, stinging materials and intermediate products. China is likewise a large and evolution exportationing grocery store. While the entry of every body of work job nation in the world(prenominal) employment system can create a process of adjustment, the answer is fundamentally a win-win situation. In this paper we would like to leave a survey of the versatile institutions, laws and characteristics of Chinas take.Among some of the findings, we can spicylight the chase In 2001, positive raft to gross national product (GDP) ratio in China is 44% In 2001, 47% of Chinese pot is process deal out1 In 2001, 51% of Chinese trade is conducted by external firms in China2 1 We define processed trade to intromit both trade delinquent to processing and assembly and trade due to processing with aftermathed materials. Processing and assembly refers to the type of inward processing in which foreign suppliers provide lancinate materials, move or components infra a contractu al arrangement for the subsequent re-exportation of the processed products.Both the imported inputs and the finished outputs bear on property of the foreign supplier. Processing with imported materials refers to the type of inward processing other than processing and assembly. For details, see Chinas usance Statistics Monthly, December, 2001. In 2001, 36% of Chinese exports originate from Guangdong responsibility In 2001, 39% of Chinas exports go through Hong Kong to be re-exported elsewhere3 The organization of this paper is as follows in the next section, we provide a public e trulywhereview of the past institutions and rules governing trade in China.We bequeath overly examine the evolution of Chinas general trade pattern over time. In section 3, we pull up stakes study Chinas processed trade and trade conducted by foreign firms. In section 4, we study Chinas trade by province and by regions. In section 5, we focus on Chinas trade with the world major regions, includin g Asia, Europe, North the States, Latin the States and Africa. In section 6, we give examine Chinas trade with various major trading partners. In section 7, we discuss Chinas clean trade governing activity with its entry to the World Trade Organization (WTO).In section 8, we analyze in greater details the trade relationships amidst China and the coupled States, China and japan, China and the European Union, and between China and the connective of atomic number 34 Asian Nations (ASEAN). In section 9, we conclude. 2. Evolution of Chinas Trade political science Since the sparing reforms and open door policy started in 1978, thither has been a strikingly sharp rise in Chinas exports and imports. As is shown in control board 1, between 1978 and 2001, the enumerate value of Chinas trade grew at an reasonable annual rate of 15. 5% and export and imports grew at 16. % and 15. 6% per annum, respectively. 2 impertinent firms acknowledge Sino-foreign contractual mutual venture, Sino-foreign honor joint venture and foreign-owned enterprises. A substantial portion of trade conducted by foreign firms is processed trade. 3 This is obtained by dividing the value of Hong Kong re-exports that originate from China by the kernel Chinese exports to the world. In the pre-reform era, China was an insignificant participant in international trade. Chinas foreign trade system was a gross(a) state monopoly controlled by the Ministry of Foreign Trade (MOFT).Trade was conducted by product-specific national foreign trade corporations (FTCs) operating under a near total mandatory trade plan. In 1977, Chinas total trade volume was $14. 8 billion, which accounted for only 0. 6% of world trade. A series of measure was introduced to promote exports since 1979. They be meant to decentralize foreign trade administration, to reduce the scope of mandatory planning, and to introduce the commercialize mechanism. Comp bed to the export system, the import system remained relation backly unreformed in the 1980s.In addition to import licensing and gamy tariffs on protected products, almost all import users were subject to a series of administrative measure and complicated approval procedure. By the primeval 1990s, the significance of Chinas role in the international economy was transformed. In 1992, its trade volume accounted for 2. 2% of world trade. Chinas trade regime has turn more transp arnt with its desire to join the WTO. The control over imports was more relaxed with a reduction on a large consider of tariff rates.In 1994, the foreign exchange regime was reformed by abolishing the dual exchange rate system, which was introduced in 1986 with the establishment of the foreign exchange adjustment centers (FEACs), or swap centers. The new regime allowed domestic firms to buy and sell foreign currencies at the official exchange rate. In 1996, the new foreign exchange regime became applicable to foreign enterprises as well. During the familys 1997-1998, the adverse effects of the Asia pecuniary crisis became more apparent, and Chinas foreign trade was met with unprecedented difficulties. Chinas total trade went down by 0. 4% and its imports decreased by 1. %, although its exports maintain a small fruit rate of 0. 5%. But Chinas trade growth accelerated since 1999 with the recovery in the Asian economies. From 1999 to 2000, total trade grew at an annualized rate of 31. 2%. The export value reached $249. 2 billion, up 27. 8% and the import value reached $225. 1 billion, up 35. 8%. In 2001, there is a minuscule increase in trading activities, with total trade rising by 7. 8%. Equally remarkable are the changes in the commodity piece of music of Chinas exports and imports. Table 2a shows Chinas annual export volumes of nifty goods and make goods over time.In 1980, primary goods accounted for 50. 3% of Chinas exports and manufactured goods accounted for 49. 7%. Although the plow part of primary good declines just about during the first half of 1980s, it remains at 50. 6% in 1985. Since then, exports of manufactured goods need grown at a much faster rate than exports of primary goods. As a result, the touch of manufactured goods increase to 90. 1%, and that of primary good decreased to 9. 9% by 2001. Also shown in those tables are tailfin subgroups for manufactured goods and primary goods. Chinas export was highly dependent on its exports of coal, petroleum, and petroleum products until mid-80s.The large export volume of petroleum was also back up by a sharp rise in oil prices during the period. In 1985, the share of mineral fuels is 26. 1%. In 1986, the sudden decline in the share of primary goods in total exports occurs, which is largely associated with the decline in the export volume of mineral fuels. The price reforms coupled with the declined world petroleum price are attributable to the decline. Domestic agriculture payoff expanded during the 1980s in response to the higher prices through the price reforms and more opportunities given to the producers to market their products.Although the share of provender and live animals in total exports has declined over time, China has become a net exporter of such products since 1984. Turning to the manufactured goods, the large increase in the share of the manufactured goods in the total exports since mid-80s is largely accounted for by the increase in the export in the textile category and the miscellaneous products category. These both groups include labor-intensive products such as textiles, apparel, footwear, and toys and sporting goods. During the 1990s, the category that exhibited the most significant surge in exports is machinery and transport equipment.Its share expanded from 9. 0% in 1990 to 35. 7 % in 2001. The change in the commodity composition in Chinas imports can be seen in Table 2b. The share of primary goods in total exports fell from 34. 8% in 1980 to 18. 8% in 2001. The decline in the share debates large dec rease in imports of food and live animals. Its share reached the highest at 21. 8% in 1982 has declined over the past 20 familys to 2. 0% in 2001. The change magnitude production of agricultural production due to domestic economic reforms enable China to reduce the amount of its agricultural imports.The share of mineral fuels in imports on the other hand, has been steadily increase during the period. The rapid economic growth that China has experienced has led to a shortage of those products domestically. China has been a net importer of mineral fuels for the past six conse debaseive years. The share of manufactured products in total imports rose from 65. 2% in 1980 to 81. 2% in 2001. This is largely attributed to sharply rising imports of machinery and transportation equipment. There are cardinal major factors that led to the increase of importing machinery and transportation equipment.First, the imported machinery and transportation equipment embodied a higher level of technolo gy than those produced domestically. Second, since China initiated the open-door policy, throughout the 1980s and the 1990s, the government promoted to open the economy to foreign investors by adopting a series of reforms and new regulations. Those include establishing Special Economic Zones, Open Coastal Cities, opening up of new sectors, various preferential policies for foreign multinationals such as tax concession, import tariff exemption, and so on.These efforts resulted in creating a more favorable investment purlieu for foreign multinationals, which led to a considerable rise in foreign direct investment. Among other activities, these foreign firms engage in processing trade. China has become an important link in the global sum up chain for multinationals. In addition, China has also a large and growing market. The increased share of imports of machinery and electronics products reflects the increased use of global outsourcing as well as the growth of Chinas domestic market . 3.Chinas Processing Trade and Trade by Foreign Invested Firms China effected the legal framework for processing and assembly arrangements in 1979. Since then, China has built up considerable strengths in assembling and processing of industrial parts and components. It covers a wide range of industries such as electric machinery, automobile, aerospace, and shipbuilding. Table 3a and Table 3b demonstrate the amount of processing exports and imports and the importance of stateowned enterprises (SOEs) and foreign-invested enterprises (FIEs) in such forms of trade for 1995-2001.Throughout the period from 1995 to 2001, the shares of these two types of processing exports exceed more than half of Chinas total exports. In 2001, processing exports account for 55. 4% of the total exports. As is seen in Table 3a, process & assembling was dominated by SOEs in 1995. However, the trend has been changing. The share of SOEs in process & assembling has been steadily declining over the years from 8 4% in 1995 to 62% in 2001. The other type of trade, process with imported materials was largely conducted by FIEs and their shares thrust been gradually increasing from 81% in 1995 to 88% in 2001.In Chinas imports (see Table 3b), processing trade is relatively small compared to exports. After it peaked at 49% in 1997, processed imports decline to 39% in 2001. The decreasing importance of SOEs can be seen in Chinas imports as well. Shares by SOEs decreased from 81% in 1995 to 58% in 2001 for process & assembling, and from 18% to 7% for process with imported materials. The decreased role for SOEs in processing trade may reflect the inefficiency in conducting their business. Since 1997, the Chinese government decided to impose the shareh sr.ing system and to sell a large number of medium- and small-sized SOEs to the private sector.A number of larger enterprise groups leave be naturalized in various industries through mergers, acquisitions, and leasing and contracting. The restructu ring of SOEs is intended to increase profits and to modify their combative edge. 4. Chinas Trade by Provinces and Regions A regional breakdown of exports and imports reveals important characteristics of the foreign trade in China. In 1997, 89. 1% of the total exports came from the Eastern region of China (Beijing, Tianjin, Heibei, Lioaning, Guangxi, instill, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Fujian, Shangdong, Guandong and Hainan).Within the East, the Southeast region accounts for 76. 3% of Chinas exports in 1997. 4 Guangdong alone produces 41. 6% of the total exports for the same year. Such regional imbalances in exporting activities persist to the present day. In 2001, Guandongs share of the national exports is 36. 0%. For the Southeast and the East, the shares are respectively 79. 0% and 91. 1%. A analogous degree of un nonethelessness in trade can be seen in the nations imports. For the year 1997, the East and the Southeast accounts for 91. 6% and 74. 7% of the total imports, while Guangd ong imports 39. %. In 2001, the East and the Southeast again accounts for 91. 4% and 74. 0%. Guangdong remains the international trade powerhouse of China. In 2001, the province imports 34. 6% or more than one-third of the nations imports. This imbalance of the regional growth in foreign trade may partially be attributed to the various geographic-specific and sequential open-door policies China has exercised throughout the last xx years. The strong growth of the export sector in the coastal area has been supported by the massive use of foreign direct investment (FDI).FDI was first attracted by the creation of the Special Economic Zones (SEZ). FDI was hard in the provinces of the Southeast coast, namely, Guandong and Fujian. The multinational enterprises that are export-oriented or use advanced technologies are able to enjoy various preferential policies in the SEZs, such as reduced or exempted corporate income tax, exemption from import tariffs on imported equipment and raw materi als. In 1984, fourteen coastal cities were unresolved and were granted similar policies as SEZs.Out of those fourteen cities, ten are located in the Southeast coast regions and four are in the rest of the Eastern regions. Furthermore in 1985, similar preferential policies were 4 Southeast region includes Shanghai, Jiangsu province, Zhejiang province, Fujian province, Shangdong province, Guandong province and Hainan Province. granted to other coastal economic regions, Pearl River Delta, Yangtze River Delta and Minnan Delta which is to the south of Fujian. In 1990, Pudong in Shanghai was opened and was granted extensive preferential policies.Since 1984, the Chinese government established thirty-two national-level Economic and Technological Development Zones (ETDZs) to enhance FDIs from foreign firms that are export-oriented and technologically advanced. Of those ETDZs, twenty are located in the Southeast coastal area, six are in the rest of the Eastern region, four are in the Central part of China, and only two are in the Western region of China. Thus government policies which establish these economic zones attract foreign direct investment principally in the Eastern and Southeastern regions, which lead to a submergence of exports and trade in these areas.Another reason for the unevenly high export growth in the Southeast coast is its geographic proximity to Hong Kong, Macao, and Taiwan. Since the early stages of the opening-up of China, Hong Kong has been pitiful their labor-intensive manufacturing industries to the Southeast of China, mainly to Guangdong, to move back advantage of the abundant supply of cheap labor. These firms contributed to the fast growth of processed exports in the region. On the other hand, the Fujian Delta area became the stand for many firms from Taiwan due to its geographic and cultural proximity to Taiwan.The share of exports in The Yangtze River Delta, the home of Shanghai and two provinces, Jiangsu and Zhejiang has grown steadi ly during the period 1997 to 2001. The share of those three regions grew to 10. 1%, 11. 0%, and 9. 1% in 2001 from 8. 1%, 7. 9% and 5. 9% in 1997, respectively. As the role of high-tech assiduity becomes more significant in Chinas output and Chinas comparative advantage in skilled-labor and capital-intensive industries becomes higher, the Yangtze River Delta becomes a new magnet for investment by foreign enterprises.These foreign investments in turn lead to more export and trade. 5. Foreign Trade by Major World Regions Using Chinas official statistics, Table 4a and 4b highlight merchandise exports and imports to and from major world regions for 1993 2001 Asia, Africa, Europe, Latin the States, North America and Oceania. As we see from Table 4a, Chinas most important export region has al slipway been Asia, which absorbs 53% of Chinas exports in 2001. However, their share of preoccupation declines from almost 62%, their peak level of 1995.The importance of North America and Europe in Chinas exports, however, has been increasing since 1998. In 2001, North America takes in more than 22% of exports and Europe takes in more than 18%. The reliance of Chinas trade on Asia can be seen in merchandise imports as well. Asia by far is the largest supplier of Chinas imports. Asia accounts for more than 60% of Chinas imports in 2001. Furthermore, its share has been more abiding than that for exports. The next largest supplier was Europe. However, Europes share has been declining gradually over the period.North America has been third, with a share of more than 12% in 2001. A roughly surprising finding is the significant increase in Chinas imports from Africa. Import volume from Africa in 2001 is fuddled to five times as king-size as it was in 1993. Table 4a and 4b highlight Chinas reliance on the Asian market for both its imports and exports. On the other hand, North America has been more of an export market than a spring of import supply. 5 5 If we take into account of re-exports to different regions, the shares of exports and imports to various world regions will remove to be adjusted. . Chinas Merchandise Exports and Imports by Major Trading Partners Table 5a and Table 5b document Chinas merchandise exports to and imports from its major trading partners, using Chinas official statistics. According to Table 5a, the major exports markets for China in 2001 are the join States (20. 4%), Hong Kong (17. 5%), japan (16. 9%) and the European Union (15. 4%). It is well-known that a large proportion of Chinese exports to Hong Kong are re-exported elsewhere so that the true size of the Hong Kong export market has to be estimated.To save space for this paper, we will just rely on the official Chinese figures. 6 Even without adjusting for re-exports, the linked States in 2001 is the largest export market for China. Thus, from an international trade perspective alone, the most important zygomorphic trade relationship for China is the relationship with the United States. Together the United States, Hong Kong, Japan and the European Union take in 70. 2% of Chinas exports in 2001. Within ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations), Singapore has been the largest export market for China. In 2001, 31. % of Chinas total exports to ASEAN is destined for Singapore. Within the European Union (EU), Germany is the largest market with 23. 8% of the total Chinese exports going to the EU. Turning to the import side, Japan is the largest source of Chinas imports. In 2001, Japan accounted for 17. 6% of Chinas total imports. The European Union comes in second, with a share of 14. 7%. Taiwan and the United States are respectively third and fourth, with shares of 11. 2% and 10. 8%. Korea is fourth largest, with a share of 9. 6%. Koreas export to China has more than quadrupled in absolute call from $5. 6 billion in 1993 to $23. 4 billion in 2001 with its share increased from 5. 16% to 9. 6%. Another trading partner that shows a growing importanc e as a supplier of Chinas imports is ASEAN. According to official Chinese figures, in 2001, the total value of their exports to China is $23. 2 billion, which is close to four times as large as it was in 1993. We are aware that the official Chinese trade statistics do not appropriately take the large volume of re-exports via Hong Kong into account and the above comparisons of Chinas exports to and import from its trading partners has to be adjusted.For the case of the United States, Fung and Lau (2001) return done detailed adjustments to the official U. S. and Chinese trade data. If we do adjust these trade figures, the two countries with the largest export markets for China in 2001 will almost surely be the United States and Japan. In fact, the United States has been the largest export market for China for quite sometime. This reiterates a point that we have made earlier from a trade standpoint, the bilateral Sino-U. S. relationship is the whizz most important relationship for Ch ina. It is essential that China takes steps to maintain the health and stability of such a relationship. . Chinas Trade Regime with Entry to the WTO China formally applied to become a member of the GATT in July 1986. It is not until December 2001 that China at last entered the WTO. During these 15 years, China engage in multilateral negotiations, as well as bilateral negotiations with 37 separate countries and areas including Japan, the United States and the European Union. Although China will enjoy its rights as a full member of the WTO, many domestic laws and regulations need to be reviewed, abolished or modified in order to enforce the WTO agreement and the protocol of accessions.China is required to implement WTO- consistent policy regimes in a wide range of areas and sectors, such as, tariffs, non-tariff6 For details of such adjustments, see Fung and Lau (2001). measures, trade-related investment measure, telecommunications, financial sector, service sector, government procur ement, and so forth The following is the short and selective summary of the WTO agreement and its possible impact on Chinas economy. 7. 1. Tariffs China has agreed to gradually lower its tariffs on a total of 7,151 items by 2010.Details of the expected changes in the tariff schedules are shown in Table 6. Tariffs on passenger automobiles were 80 to 100% in 1998. Tariffs were cut to 51. 9% with WTO accession and will further be decreased to 25% by 2005. Tariffs on information technology products such as computers and semiconductors will be reduced to zero and those on home appliances such as air conditioners, refrigerators, and television sets will be reduced to 10% to 20% by 2005. The just rate of tariffs on all items at the time of accession in 2001 was 13. 6%, which is scheduled to be lowered to 9. 8% in 2010.Out of 7,151 items, 977 are in agricultural products, whose average rate of tariff is scheduled to be lowered from 22. 7% to 15. 0%. The average rate of tariff on the rest o f the 6,174 items, which include mining and manufacturing products, will be lowered from 16. 6% to 8. 9%. China lowered tariffs on over 5,300 items to 12% in January 2002. Currently, the average rate of tariffs on manufactured products is 11. 6%. The average tariff rate on agricultural products is 15. 8%. Cutting tariffs will benefit Chinas economy by increasing efficiency and expanding a variety of goods for consumers.Increased foreign competition will challenge domestic producers to improve their combat. The extent of economic benefits from reduced tariffs to foreign firms should also be significant but not as large as it seems. Since 1996, China has already cut tariffs significantly. The average tariff rate on all imports was reduced from 42% in 1992 to 17. 5% in 2000. Chinas proposal to reduce the average tariffs amounts to a reduction of a little over 1% a year. But tariff rates applied in certain sectors can be significantly lower than the published rates. This is the case fo r high technology industry.A new foreign investment policy in 1999, for an example, allows export-oriented foreign firms to import equipment from a great without any import duties. 7. 2. Other import restrictions China agrees to expire any import restrictions that are not WTO compatible, such as import quotas, import licensing, and foreign exchange control by 2005. China subjects a broad range of commodities to import quotas, including agricultural products such as grains and vegetable oils, raw materials such as fertilizer and cotton, consumer products such as color TVs, photographic cameras, video camera recorders, automobiles, and so on.Many products that are subject to import quotas also require import licenses. summation to the WTO requires China to comply with rules set out by various WTO Articles to stop nondiscriminatory application of quotas and to make import licensing procedures more transparent and simple. For example, import quotas on automobiles and parts will be e liminated by 2005. In the meantime, the value of total imports of automobiles and parts allowed will be increased by 15% each year. The elimination of these non-tariff barriers will significantly increase international competition. Protected sectors such as the utomobile industry in China will face difficult challenges from foreign competitors. But after a period of adjustments and consolidations, such industries are expected to become more efficient and competitive. 7. 3. Service Industries In accordance to WTO agreements, China will also open up its service sector to foreign competition, including distribution, insurance, banking, and telecommunications. Telecommunications, including fixed-line telephone services, cellular telephones, and profits services is one area that has been under strong government control in the past.The various restrictions imposed on the sector, such as the percentage of foreign capital allowed and the area where foreign firms can operate, will be elimin ated. A foreign nonlife insurer is permitted to establish as a branch or as a joint venture with 51% foreign ownership. A foreign life insurer is permitted 50% foreign ownership in a joint venture. Over time, geographical restrictions will also be eliminated. Within five years, foreign financial institutions are allowed to have full market access and to provide services to all Chinese clients.The financial position of the Chinese banking system is weak and foreign participation in the sector has been small. In order to improve efficiency and to gain foreign capital, some banks are expected to form strategic partnerships with foreign banks. China will also allow full trading and direct distribution by foreign firms including wholesale and retail trade and the provision of after-sale service. In sum, in all these areas, domestic Chinese entities will face stiff competition from foreign firms.But the increased competition will eventually lead to increased efficiency and higher labor pr oductivity, which will raise Chinas competitiveness in the world market. 8. Chinas Trade dealings with Selective Trading Partners 8. 1 U. S China Relationship A healthy Sino-U. S. economic relationship is critical to Chinas economic development. U. S. -China commercial ties have expanded substantially since the beginning of economic reforms. According to Chinese statistics, U. S. exports to China were $721. 1 million and imports were $270. 67 million in 1978.Those figures grew to $26. 20 billion and $54. 28 billion in 2001, respectively. China is currently the 4th largest trading partner for the United States. U. S. -China commercial ties have been strained by a number of issues. The U. S. -China bilateral trade balance has been in deficits for years and is progressively increasing. Even though professional economists view bilateral trade deficits as a result of saving-investment imbalances and government budget deficits, U. S. policymakers continue to have great concerns with the presence of the bilateral trade imbalances.Fung and Lau (2001) have estimated that the China-United States bilateral trade balance is volumedger than what the official Chinese figures indicate, but much smaller than the official U. S. official estimates. These discrepancies are due to a variety of factors, including the different ways imports and exports are measured, re-exports via Hong Kong and the re-export markups imposed by Hong Kong middlemen. Despite the fact that the bilateral trade deficits are not as large as they appear, they are still big and are growing. countries. Table 7a shows the top 15 U. S. mports from China for the years 1995 to 2000. During this period, there is a significant growth in U. S. imports of capital-intensive manufactures goods. The largest import from China has been galvanic machinery, Trade imbalances remain a source of trade friction between the two which accounts for almost 20% of total U. S. imports from China in 2000. Non-electric machinery, which includes boilers, machinery and mechanical appliance, accounts for about 8% of imports in 1995 but has grown to 13% by the year 2000. Non-electric machinery is now the second largest U.S. import item from China. There is no doubt that some of these items are processed exports from China. In other words, production in China and its subsequent export constitutes only one or several stages of the entire global production chain. The rest of the U. S. imports from China largely concentrate in low valued-added and labor-intensive products, such as toys, games, and sports equipment, footwear, furniture, apparel and lather products. Chinas accession to the WTO would credibly have a significant positive effect on U. S. -China trade. A study by the U. S. outside(a) Trade Commission estimates that the United States will benefit from increasing its exports to China by $3. 1 billion. Another study by Goldman Sachs estimates that Chinas WTO accession will bring an additional $13 billion t o U. S. exports by 2005. Table 7b shows the top 15 U. S. exports to China for the years 1995 to 2000. As mentioned before, Chinese import quotas and licensing covers a wide range of commodities. A number of items that is important to the United States, including oilseeds, cameras, and motor vehicles have been subjected to both import licensing and quotas.Elimination of import licensing and quotas under the WTO agreement will create a positive impact on the U. S. economy by generating more exports, reducing costs for trade. At the same time, the Chinese economy will also benefit in the longer run as its domestic producers will become more efficient and more productive in the face of more intense foreign competition. The U. S. China bilateral WTO agreement provides increased access for U. S. agricultural exports across a wide range of commodities. A tariff-rate quota (TRQ) ystem will be established to wheat, corn, rice, oilseeds, vegetable oils, sugar, wool, and cotton, which are id entified as antecedency sectors to the United States. Under a TRQ, the same low in-quota duty is applied to each importer up to a particular amount and out-ofquota rate is applied to any imports that exceed the particular threshold amount. China still can reserve a share of imports for state trading enterprises. The institution of TRQ will provide a share of the TRQ for private traders other than state trading entities. Some U. S. sectors will benefit from significant cuts in tariffs.Overall industrial tariffs will be cut from an average of 24. 6% in 1997 to 9. 4% by 2005. Average tariffs for U. S. priority agriculture products, such as beef, grapes, wine cheese, poultry, and pork will be cut from 31. 5% to 14. 5% by 2004. A study by the U. S. International Trade Commission finds that U. S. exporters will gain from such tariff cuts by a modest amount, ranging from $1. 5 billion to $1. 9 billion. As U. S. and China expanded their commercial relations, disputes have arisen over a wid e variety of issues. One of the on-going trade frictions that the two countries face is textile trade.Under the Agreement on Textile and Clothing, the U. S. textile and clothing quotas will have to be removed by 20057. The U. S. textiles and clothing industries, which have been under the protection of quotas, will be subjected to competition with Chinese imports. But this is likely to be beneficial to both countries, as the United States eliminate the inefficient trade barriers in textile and garment. 7 The U. S. negotiated with China for a special safeguard provision to enable the United States to have additional protection against Chinese imports. 8. Japan-China Relations Japan and China have deepened their economic ties since Chinas reform policy started in 1978. Japan is Chinas largest trading partner, while China is Japans second largest trading partner. The two countries together constitute Asias largest trading partner. Although the total volume of trade declined in 1998, it quickly vulcanised during the following year. According to Chinese statistics, the value of Chinese exports to Japan in 1999 is $32. 40 billion, which exceeds the value of Chinese exports in 1996 before the onset of the Asian financial crisis.There has been robust growth in the volume of trade between the two countries in 2001. Japanese exports to China have grown from $3. 11 billion in 1978 to $42. 8 billion in 2001, and Japanese imports from China have grown from $1. 72 billion in 1978 to $45. 0 billion in 2001. Table 8 takes data from official Japanese trade statistics and it shows changes in the commodity composition of Japanese exports and imports to and from China. 8 Traditionally, China has supplied Japan with agricultural goods and raw materials, while Japan supplied China with capital goods to China. In 1991, Japanese imports of oodstuffs and textile amounts to almost half of its total imports from China, while more than 70% of Japanese exports to China are capital goods. This pattern changes in the 1990s. Japanese imports of foodstuff decline to 10. 7% in 2000, and those of textile declined to 30. 3% after reaching a peak of 36. 4% in 1993. On the other hand, the shares of Chinese exports of both general machinery and electrical machinery increase dramatically from 0. 9% and 4. 0% in 1991 to 6. 9% and 15. 1% in 2000, respectively. A large proportion of the production and export of such machinery in China is processed ith imported components by Japanese affiliated firm, reflecting the increased amount of Japans production in the manufacturing sector in China. China concluded its bilateral trade agreement with Japan on September 4, 1999. Chinas accession to the WTO would likely have a significant positive effect on SinoJapanese trade for the following reasons. First, China and Japan are important trading partners with each other. Second, many products subject to licensing and quotas in China are consumer electronics such as color TVs, VCRs, tape playe rs and cameras, which are major Japanese exports.The removal of non-tariff barriers will eventually strengthen the competitiveness of the Chinese industries. At the same time, it will have a significant impact on Japanese exports. A study by the Economic Planning Agency (2000) of the Japanese government estimates that by 2005, Chinas accession to the WTO will increase Japanese exports by 20. 1 billion, while raising its imports from China by 6. 5 billion. The large reduction in Chinese tariffs happens to occur in industries in which Japan has already established competitive edges, such as the automobile industry and the information technology industry.For example, in 1998, Japanese exports share of automobiles to China was 66% in terms of the value, whereas the figures for the U. S. and the EU are 10% and 7%, respectively. China cuts its tariffs on automobile imports from 80-100% to 70-80% at the beginning of 2001. Auto imports from China are expected to continue to increase. 8. 3 A SEAN China Relations 8 Data are taken from White Paper in International Trade, MITI, Government of Japan, various years. berth that the aggregate import and export values in Table 8 differ from those taken from the official Chinese data.According to ASEAN statistics, their share of Chinas trade rises significantly from 5. 8% in 1991 to 8. 3% in 20009. ASEAN has become the fifth largest trade partner of China after Japan, the United States, the European Union and Hong Kong. The change in the commodity composition in ASEAN exports to China is equally remarkable. In 1993, two of their largest export commodities to China are HS27 mineral fuels oils and waxes, and HS44 wood and articles of wood, which account for about 55% of their total exports. In 2000, however, the share of those commodities declined to pproximately 22%. In contrast, the shares of HS84 and 85, electrical and general machinery go up from about 12% to 38% during the same period. On the imports side, electrical and gen eral machinery are the largest and the second largest import commodities from China in 1993, and these two items continue to be the most important ones in the year 2000. However, their relative shares in total ASEAN imports from China increase dramatically from 21% in 1993 to 51% in 2000. ASEANs largest trading partners (excluding ASEAN itself) have always been the United States, the European Union and Japan.During the 1990s, many ASEAN members started to lose competitiveness and market shares to China. In trading with the large industrialized countries, China has been catching up to the ASEAN member countries. Table 9 shows the exports from ASEAN and China to the United States, the European Union and Japan. Compared to the 1993 Chinese exports, ASEANs exports to the United States, the European Union and Japan are respectively 148%, 157%, and 96% larger for the same year. Similar comparisons show that China has been gaining on 9 Data are taken out from the ASEAN Trade Statistics Dat abase.ASEAN throughout the 1990s, By 2000, ASEANs exports to these three central markets are only larger than those from China by 30%, 51%, and 25% respectively10. Many ASEAN member countries are concerned as China develops and finally joins the WTO. On the positive side, Chinas accession to the WTO will mean greater market access for ASEAN exports to China. Chinese tariffs against ASEAN products will be cut between 34% to 47% by the year 2005 (Thitapha Wattanapruttipaisan, 2001). However, Chinas accession also creates new competitiveness challenges to many ASEAN countries.There will be increased Chinese competition in ASEANS key export commodities in all the important markets. Chinas largest export commodities are electric and general machinery (HS XVI), which accounts for 31. 9% of their exports in 2001. Among other items, this category includes televisions, sound recorders, parts of those articles, mechanical appliances, and other machinery. Exports by ASEAN countries such as Ma laysia, Philippines, and Singapore also rely heavily on these commodities. The share of electric and general machinery in total exports from Malaysia, Philippines, and Singapore in 2000 is 72. 2%, 84. 3%, and 77. 3%, respectively.Due to low wages, China may have competitive advantages in these industries. Another sector that China displays strong competitiveness is textile and clothing. During the 1990s China has increased its market shares in key markets such as the United States, the European Union and Japan. This sector is particularly important to Thailand, Indonesia, and Philippines. For Philippines, knitted fabric (HS61) and not-knitted fabric (HS62) are the third and the fourth largest export commodities in 2000. Chinas accession to the WTO will likely 10 Since the Asian crisis in 1997, Chinas catching-up process appears to be accelerated ntensify competition between exporters from China and from ASEAN in both the Chinese domestic market as well as markets in the industrializ ed countries. 8. 4 EU China Relation From 1978, the year when Chinas economic reform started, to the year 2001, total trade volume between China and the European Union has increased more than fortyfold. In the early 1990s, there has been frequent EU anti-dumping proceedings against China. In 1992, there were 20 anti-dumping measures against China, and the figure increases to 30 at the end of 1995 (Roger Strange, 1998).As Chinas economy grows, the European Union begins to focus on fostering a more stable relationship with China. In 1995, the European Union passed a document authorize A Long-Term Policy for China-Europe Relations. This document emphasizes the importance of developing more active economic engagements with China. Further EU policies toward China were set out in the 1998 communication Building a Comprehensive Partnership with China, which was implemented in 2001, with suggestions about concrete ways of furthering EUChina relations.Like almost all of the trading partne rs with China, a significant amount of trade between the European Union and China occurs as re-exports via Hong Kong. According to the Census and Statistics Department of the Hong Kong government, re-exports of Chinese goods to the European Union is $24. 3 billion in 2000. This accounts for 22. 3% of the total re-exports of goods of Chinese origin that passed through Hong Kong that year. In contrast, Hong Kongs re-exports of goods from the European Union to China was only $6. 7 billion. This is 10. 7% of all the re-exports that go through Hong Kong to China that year.Table 10 shows the top 10 Chinese exports to and imports from the European Union. EU exports to China is highly concentrated in electrical and non-electrical machinery, accounting for 56% of its total exports to China. Although concentration on this category of exports is fairly common with Chinas other trading partners, the extent of such concentration is unique to the European Union. For example, the percentage share of electrical and non-electrical machinery in U. S. total exports to China is 35. 8% in 2000 and comparable figure for Japan for the same year is 47%.In addition, electrical and non-electrical machinery are also important items on the list of EU imports from China. In 2000, this category of goods constitutes 35. 5% of total imports from China to the European Union. A bilateral EU-China agreement on Chinas accession to the WTO was concluded on May 19, 2000. China agreed to cut its average import tariffs for cl key products11 from 18. 6% to 10. 6%. These key products include spirits, cosmetics, leather articles, textiles, building materials, and machinery and appliances. Furthermore, the agreement made specific commitment in the automobile industry.First, in two years, automobile manufacturers who have invested or will invest in joint ventures with Chinese firms will have freedom to make their own decisions regarding the class and models of the vehicle to be produced. Second, provinci al authorities alone can approve automobile foreign investment projects with a value of no more than $150 million. The old limit used to be $30 million. Third, wholly foreign owned enterprises will be allowed in the automobile 11 These key products are spirits, cosmetics, leather articles, textiles, building materials, and machinery and appliances. ngine industry. Opening up the automobile sector is important to the European Union. Many European automobile manufacturers such as Volkswagen, Mercedes, Peugeot, Audi, and BMW are well established in China. Japan has been a key player in this industry in China for many years. But many European manufacturers, particularly the Germans, have paid increasing attention to the growing Chinese market. . According to the Peoples Daily (July 23, 2001), the number of automobiles imported by China from Japan in the first five month of 2001 accounts for 56% of the total imports of automobiles.However China also imports 14% of its automobiles from Ge rmany. In the future, China may face increasing challenges in exporting to the European Union. The first challenge is the increased use of anti-dumping duties by the European Union towards China. According to China Daily (March 28, 2002), the current total number of anti-dumping cases against Chinese products launched by the European Union reaches 91, accounting for about one-fifth of the total anti-dumping cases that China faces. Second, with the launch of the Euro and plans to expand the European Union to include more members, there should be an increase of intra-EU trade.In some instances, the increase in intra-EU trade may occur at the expense of trade with non-EU countries such as China. 9. Conclusion China has gone a considerable distance in its attempt to integrate itself to the global economy. Chinas economy is an increasingly open one. In 2001, its total trade to GDP ratio reaches 44%. In December 2001, China formally joins the WTO. By joining the WTO, China binds itself to a rule-based trading system and signals to the world that it is ready to continue and even accelerate its open door reform policy. Chinas trade is characterized by at least four characteristics.First, a large amount of trade is actually conducted by foreign firms in China. In 2001, 50% of Chinese trade is carried out by foreign-invested firms. Second, a very high percentage of Chinese trade is processed trade. In 2001, 47% of Chinese trade is related to processing. Furthermore, of the processed trade, 73% is conducted by foreign-invested enterprises. Third, there is a large amount of re-exports in Chinas interactions with the world. In 2001, 39% of Chinas exports go through Hong Kong to be re-exported elsewhere. Lastly, Chinas trade is geographically concentrated.In 2001, 35. 3% of Chinese trade originates from one province, viz. Guangdong. What might we expect to see in the future? With increased integration in the global economy, the prominent role of foreign firms in Chinas trad e will likely continue. The presence of foreign firms in Chinese trade reflects also the increased use of global outsourcing as a competitiveness strategy by multinationals from the industrialized economies. With low wages and a large pool of high quality labor, China has become a critical link in the global network of production fragmentation.At the same time, as China continues to grow, more and more of the foreign-invested firms, particularly those from the United States, Japan and the European Union, are set up to sell to the booming domestic Chinese market. While processed trade should remain an important feature of Chinese trade, it is no longer confined to low-tech and low value-added activities. U. S. high-technology companies continue to subcontract to firms in Taiwan. The same Taiwanese firms are moving or subcontracting to the Mainland. China has also become an important market for information technology (IT) products.According to the American Electronics Association (AEA ), the largest umbrella industry group of high-technology companies in the United States, China is now the third largest IT market in the world. In fact, due to its own estimation of the importance and growth of Chinas IT market, Silicon vale acted as one of the most vocal and strongest supporters for China to join the WTO. In the near future, we can expect to see that Chinas trade will be increasingly high-tech. The share of re-exports in Chinas trade has declined in recent years. It is expected that this trend will continue.As Chinas trade regime becomes more rule-based and more transparent, Chinese trade will also become more direct. With its advanced infrastructure in finance, insurance, shipping and telecommunications, Hong Kong remains a favorite site for multinationals to set up and maintain its regional headquarters. Hong Kong will continue to play an important role in coordinating the global supply chains involving parents of multinationals and specialized suppliers located in China and other Asian countries. The share of trade conducted by Guangdong province remains high.But there are indications that Shanghai and the Yangtze River Delta have taken an increasing active role in the last few years. Over time, we may expect to see that there is some tame diversification in the share of trading activities away from Guangdong. In the future, we see that there are at least two challenges facing China in the area of international trade. First, with Chinas competitiveness growing, many countries will perceive that their producers will not be able to compete with the Chinese exports, either in the third market or in their own domestic market. The backlash will take the form of n increased use of anti-dumping duties and safeguards. We have already seen the use of such trade instruments against China from a variety of countries, including Japan, the European Union and the United States. A relatively new development is that even developing countries such as Ind ia and Mexico are using anti-dumping measures against Chinese exports to their countries. The difficulty with anti-dumping duties is that they are generally WTO-consistent. Thus joining the WTO does not mean that other countries will reduce their use of anti-dumping duties against China.A second challenge facing China is how to manage its trade relationship with the United States. The United States is the largest economy on earth. The United States is Chinas largest export market. It is also a critical source of technology. A stable and healthy relationship with the United States is important for Chinas economic development. It is always a difficult adjustment process for countries to accept a newly emergent economic power. 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Qiu and Keith Wong, 2001, Antidumping Measures as a Tool of Protectionism A Mechanism Design Approach, Canadian ledger of Economics, 34(3), 639-660. Chinas Customs Statistics Monthly, December, Beijing cosmopolitan Administration of Customs of the Peoples Republic of China, various years. China Statistical Yearbook, Beijing China Statistical Press, various years. Fung, K. C. , 1998, Acco unting for Chinese Trade Some National and RegionalConsiderations, in R. Baldwin, R. Lipsey and J. David Richardson (ed. ) Geography and Ownership as Bases for Economic Accounting, NBER Conference Volume, Chicago University of Chicago Press. Fung, K. C. and Lawrence J. Lau, 2001, New Estimates of the United States-China Bilateral Trade Balances, Journal of Japanese and International Economies, December. Naughton, B. , 1996, Chinas issuing and Prospects as a Trading Nation, Brookings Papers on Economic Activity, 2. Sung, Yun-Wing, 1991, The China-Hong Kong Connection, Cambridge Cambridge University Press.Sung, Yun Wing, Pak Wai Liu, Richard Yue-Chim Wong and Pui King Lau, 1995, The Fifth Dragon The Emergence of the Pearl River Delta, Singapore Addison Wesley Publishing Company. Wong,Richard, Y. C. , 1995, Chinas Economic ReformThe Next Step, Contemporary Economic Policy, 1318-27. White Paper in International Trade, MITI, Tokyo Government of Japan, various years. Woo, Wing T. , 2001, Recent Claims of Chinas Exceptionalism Reflections Inspired by WTO Accession, China Economic Review, 12, No. 2/3. WTO, 2002, China Accession to the World Trade Organization, mimeo.Table 1 Chinas Foreign Merchandise Trade Year 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 Trade Volume (US$ billion) Total Exports Imports 20. 7 29. 4 38. 1 44 41. 6 43. 6 53. 5 69. 7 73. 8 82. 7 102. 8 111. 7 115. 4 135. 7 165. 6 195. 8 236. 7 280. 9 289. 9 325. 2 323. 9 360. 6 473. 3 509. 8 9. 8 13. 7 18. 1 22 22. 3 22. 2 26. 1 27. 4 30. 9 39. 4 47. 5 52. 5 62. 1 71. 9 85 91. 8 121 148. 8 151 182. 8 183. 7 194. 9 249. 2 266. 2 10. 9 15. 7 20 22 19. 3 21. 4 27. 4 42. 3 42. 9 43. 2 55. 3 59. 1 53. 63. 8 80. 6 104 115. 7 132. 1 138. 8 142. 4 140. 2 165. 7 225. 1 243. 6 Balance -1. 1 -2 -1. 9 0 3 0. 8 -1. 3 -14. 9 -12 -3. 8 -7. 8 -6. 6 8. 7 8. 1 4. 4 -12. 2 5. 3 16. 7 12. 2 40. 4 43. 5 29. 2 24. 1 22. 5 Total 100 142 184 213 201 211 258 337 357 400 497 540 557 656 800 946 1,143 1,357 1,400 1,571 1,565 1,742 2,287 2,463 great power 1978=100 Exports Imports 100 140 185 224 228 227 266 280 315 402 485 536 634 734 867 937 1,235 1,518 1,541 1,865 1,875 1,989 2,543 2,716 100 144 183 202 177 196 251 388 394 396 507 542 490 585 739 954 1,061 1,212 1,274 1,306 1,287 1,520 2,065 2,234Source Chinas Customs Statistics, various years, General Administration of Customs of the Peoples Republic of China. assembly line The figures are in US$ billion. Exports are valued on a f. o. b. basis, imports on a c. i. f. basis. Table 2a Composition of Chinas Export (US$100million) Total Primary goods total food Manufacture goods raw beveraes materials mineral oil total chemicals textile machinery miscel. others 1980 181. 19 91. 14 29. 85 0. 78 17. 11 42. 8 0. 6 90. 05 11. 2 39. 99 8. 43 28. 36 2. 07 1981 220. 07 102. 48 29. 24 0. 6 19. 48 52. 28 0. 88 117. 59 13. 42 47. 06 10. 87 37. 25 8. 99 1982 223. 1 100. 5 29. 08 0. 97 16. 53 53. 14 0. 78 122. 71 11. 96 43. 02 12. 63 37. 05 18. 05 1983 222. 26 96. 2 28. 53 1. 04 18. 92 46. 66 1. 05 126. 06 12. 51 43. 65 12. 21 38. 04 19. 65 1984 261. 39 119. 34 32. 32 1. 1 24. 21 60. 27 1. 44 142. 05 13. 64 50. 54 14. 93 46. 97 15. 97 1985 273. 5 138. 28 38. 03 1. 05 26. 53 71. 32 1. 35 135. 22 13. 58 44. 93 7. 72 34. 86 34. 13 1986 309. 42 112. 72 44. 48 1. 19 29. 08 36. 83 1. 14 196. 7 17. 33 58. 86 10. 94 49. 48 60. 09 1987 394. 37 132. 31 47. 81 1. 75 36. 5 45. 44 0. 81 262. 06 22. 35 85. 7 17. 41 62. 73 73. 87 1988 475. 16 144. 06 58. 9 2. 35 42. 57 39. 0. 74 331. 1 28. 97 104. 89 27. 69 82. 68 86. 87 1989 525. 38 150. 78 61. 45 3. 14 42. 12 43. 21 0. 86 374. 6 32. 01 108. 97 38. 74 107. 55 87. 33 1990 620. 91 158. 86 66. 09 3. 42 35. 37 52. 37 1. 61 462. 05 37. 3 125. 76 55. 88 126. 86 116. 25 1991 718. 43 161. 45 72. 26 5. 29 34. 86 47. 54 1. 5 556. 98 38. 18 144. 56 71. 49 166. 2 136. 55 1992 849. 4 170. 04 83. 09 7. 2 31. 43 46. 93 1. 39 679. 36 43. 48 161. 35 132. 19 342. 34 NA 1993 917. 44 166. 66 83. 99 9. 01 30. 52 41. 09 2. 05 750. 78 46. 23 163. 92 152. 82 387. 81 NA 1994 1,210. 06 197. 08 100. 15 10. 02 41. 27 40. 69 4. 95 1,012. 98 62. 6 232. 18 218. 95 499. 37 0. 12 1995 1,487. 80 214. 85 99. 54 13. 7 43. 75 53. 32 4. 54 1,272. 95 90. 94 322. 4 314. 07 545. 48 0. 06 1996 1,510. 48 219. 25 102. 31 13. 42 40. 45 59. 31 3. 76 1,291. 23 88. 77 284. 98 353. 12 564. 24 0. 12 1997 1,827. 92 239. 53 110. 75 10. 49 41. 95 69. 87 6. 47 1,588. 39 102. 27 344. 32 437. 09 704. 67 0. 04 1998 1,837. 57 206 106. 19 9. 76 35. 17 51. 81 3. 07 1,631. 57 103. 16 323. 83 502. 33 702. 2 0. 05 1999 1,949. 31 199. 41 104. 58 7. 71 39. 21 46. 59 1. 32 1,749. 90 103. 73 332. 62 588. 36 725. 1 0. 09 2000 2,492. 03 254. 6 122. 82 7. 45 44. 62 78. 55 1. 6 2,237. 43 120. 98 425. 46 826 862. 78 2. 21 2001 2,661. 54 263. 53 127. 79 8. 74 41. 73 84. 16 1. 11 2,398. 01 133. 53 438. 23 949. 18 871. 23 5. 85 Source China Statistical Yearbook 2001, Chinas Customs Statis tics Monthly, December 2001 Note Since 1992 and 1993, there has been a change in the classification system for for categories like Others. tem Table 2b Composition of Chinas Import (US$100 million) Manufacture goods raw total food beveraes materials mineral oil total chemicals textile machinery miscel. others 1980 200. 17 69. 59 29. 27 0. 36 35. 54 2. 03 2. 39 130. 58 29. 09 41. 4 51. 19 5. 42 3. 34 1981 220. 15 80. 44 36. 22 2. 13 40. 27 0. 83 0. 99 139. 71 26. 06 40. 35 58. 66 5. 58 9. 06 1982 192. 85 76. 34 42. 01 1. 3 30. 12 1. 83 1. 08 116. 51 29. 36 39. 06 32. 04 4. 86 11. 19 1983 213. 9 58. 08 31. 22 0. 46 24. 59 1. 11 0. 7 155. 82 31. 83 62. 89 39. 88 7. 82 13. 4 1984 274. 1 52. 08 23. 31 1. 16 25. 42 1. 39 0. 8 222. 02 42. 37 73. 18 72. 45 11. 82 22. 2 1985 422. 52 52. 89 15. 53 2. 06 32. 36 1. 72 1. 22 369. 63 44. 69 118. 98 162. 39 19. 02 24. 55 1986 429. 04 56. 49 16. 25 1. 72 31. 43 5. 04 2. 05 372. 55 37. 71 111. 92 167. 81 18. 77 36. 34 1987 432. 16 69. 15 24. 3 2. 6 3 33. 21 5. 39 3. 49 363. 01 50. 08 97. 3 146. 07 18. 78 50. 78 1988 552. 75 100. 68 34. 76 3. 46 50. 9 7. 87 3. 69 452. 07 91. 39 104. 1 166. 97 19. 82 69. 79 1989 591. 4 117. 54 41. 92 2. 02 48. 35 16. 5 8. 75 473. 86 75. 56 123. 35 182. 07 20. 73 72. 15 1990 533. 45 98. 53 33. 35 1. 57 41. 07 12. 72 9. 82 434. 92 66. 48 89. 06 168. 45 21. 03 89. 9 1991 637. 91 108. 34 27. 99 2 50. 03 21. 13 7. 19 529. 57 92. 77 104. 93 196. 01 24. 39 111. 47 1992 805. 85 132. 55 31. 46 2. 39 57. 75 35. 7 5. 25 673. 3 111. 57 192. 73 313. 12 55. 88 NA 1993 1,039. 59 142. 1 22. 06 2. 45 54. 38 58. 19 5. 2 897. 49 97. 04 285. 27 450. 23 64. 95 NA 1994 1,156. 14 164. 86 31. 37 0. 68 74. 37 40. 35 18. 09 991. 28 121. 3 280. 84 514. 67 67. 68 6. 79 1995 1,320. 84 244. 17 61. 32 3. 94 101. 59 51. 27 26. 05 1,076. 67 172. 99 287. 72 526. 42 82. 61 6. 93 1996 1,388. 33 254. 41 56. 72 4. 97 106. 98 68. 77 16. 97 1,133. 92 181. 06 313. 91 547. 63 84. 86 6. 46 1997 1,423. 70 286. 2 43. 04 3. 2 120. 06 103. 0 6 16. 84 1,137. 50 192. 97 322. 2 527. 74 85. 5 9. 09 1998 1,401. 66 229. 52 37. 93 1. 79 107. 16 67. 73 14. 91 1,172. 14 201. 66 310. 71 567. 68 84. 55 7. 54 1999 1,656. 99 268. 46 36. 19 2. 08 127. 89. 12 13. 67 1,388. 53 240. 3 243. 17 694. 53 97. 01 13. 52 2000 2,250. 94 467. 39 47. 58 3. 64 200. 03 206. 37 9. 77 1,783. 55 302. 13 418. 07 919. 31 127. 51 16. 53 2001 2,436. 13 457. 74 49. 76 4. 12 221. 28 174. 95 7. 63 1,978. 40 321. 06 419. 39 1,070. 42 150. 76 16. 77 Source China Statistical Yearbook 2001, Chinas Customs Statistics Monthly, December 2001. Note Since 1992 and 1993, there has been a change in the classification system for categories like Others. Total Primary goods Table 3a Exports by Type of Enterprise and by Customs Regime (US$ billion) 1995 1996 1997 1998 Total 148. 151. 1 182. 7 183. 8 Process and Assembly 20. 7 24. 2 29. 4 30. 7 Process with Imported Materials 53 60. 1 70. 2 73. 7 Process and Assembly Total SOE FIE sub total Process with Imported Materials T otal SOE FIE sub total 1995 20. 7 17. 3 2. 9 1995 53 13. 4 39. 2 1996 24. 2 19 4. 5 1996 60. 1 10. 9 48. 6 1997 29. 4 22. 3 6. 1 1997 70. 2 11. 7 57. 7 1998 30. 7 22. 5 7. 2 1998 73. 7 10. 9 62 1999 194. 9 35. 8 75. 1 1999 35. 8 24. 2 10. 4 1999 75. 1 9. 8 64. 2 2000 249. 2 41. 1 96. 5 2000 41. 1 26. 5 13. 1 2000 96. 5 10. 4 84. 1 2001 266. 2 42. 2 105. 2 2001 42. 2 26 14. 3 2001 105. 2 9. 9 92. Table 3b Imports by Type of Enterprise and by Customs Regime (US$ billion) Total 1995 1996 1997 1998 Process and Assembly 132. 1 138. 8 142. 4 140. 2 Process with Imported Materials 16. 2 17. 8 20. 9 19. 9 42. 1 44. 5 49. 3 48. 7 Process and Assembly Total SOE FIE sub total Process with Imported Materials Total SOE FIE sub total Source Chinas Customs Statistics, various years. 1995 16. 2 13. 2 2. 7 1995 42. 1 7. 4 34. 4 1996 17. 8 13. 6 3. 7 1996 44. 5 6. 5 37. 8 1997 20. 9 15. 4 4. 9 1997 49. 3 6. 1 42. 9 1998 19. 9 14. 2 5 1998 48. 7 5. 1 43. 2 1999 165. 7 23. 6 50 1999 23. 6 15. 4 7. 1999 50 4. 3 45. 3 2000 225. 1 28 64. 6 2000 28 17. 4 9. 7 2000 64. 6 4. 8 58. 9 2001 243. 6 28. 9 65. 1 2001 28. 9 16. 9 10. 8 2001 65. 1 4. 3 59. 5 Table 4a Chinas Exports to Major World Regions (US$ billion) Export To Total Asia North Anerica Europe Latin America Oceania Africa 1993 91. 74 52. 62 18. 16 16. 43 1. 78 1. 23 1. 53 1994 121 73. 45 22. 86 18. 77 2. 45 1. 72 1. 75 1995 148. 77 92 26. 24 22. 98 3. 15 1. 9 2. 49 1996 151. 07 91. 25 28. 3 23. 87 3. 12 1. 96 2. 57 1997 182. 7 108. 92 34. 6 28. 96 4. 61 2. 4 3. 21 1998 183. 71 98. 18 40. 1 33. 43 5. 32 2. 66 4. 06 1999 194. 93 102. 8 44. 39 35. 47 5. 27 3. 11 4. 11 2000 249. 21 132. 31 55. 28 45. 48 7. 19 3. 91 5. 04 2001 266. 15 140. 96 87. 88 49. 24 8. 24 4. 07 6. 01 Table 4b Chinas Imports from Major World Regions (US$ billion) Import From Total Asia North America Europe Latin America Oceania Africa 1993 103. 96 62. 6 12. 07 23. 97 1. 93 2. 36 1 1994 115. 62 68. 77 15. 74 25. 02 2. 25 2. 92 0. 89 1995 132. 08 78. 05 18. 8 27 . 81 2. 97 3. 02 1. 43 1996 138. 84 83. 44 18. 73 27. 66 3. 61 3. 94 1. 46 1997 142. 36 88. 4 18. 31 25. 75 3. 77 3. 67 2. 46 1998 140. 24 87. 05 19. 2 26. 31 2. 99 3. 14 1. 48 1999 165. 72 101. 9 21. 82 32. 65 2. 99 4. 19 2. 38 2000 225. 1 141. 34 26. 12 40. 78 5. 41 5. 88 5. 56 2001 243. 61 147. 18 30. 24 48. 4 6. 7 6. 29 4. 79 Source Chinas Customs Statistics, various years Table 5a Merchandise Exports to Major Trading Partners (US$ Billion) 1993 91. 74 22. 05 1. 46 15. 78 2. 86 16. 96 12. 24 3. 97 1. 29 1. 61 1. 3 1. 93 4. 68 2. 25 1994 121 32. 36 2. 24 21. 58 4. 38 21. 46 15. 39 4. 76 1. 42 2. 27 1. 59 2. 41 6. 38 2. 56 1995 148. 77 35. 98 3. 1 28. 46 6. 69 24. 71 19. 09 5. 67 1. 84 3. 23 2. 07 2. 79 9. 04 3. 5 1996 151. 07 32. 91 2. 8 30. 87 7. 51 26. 69 19. 83 5. 84 1. 91 3. 4 1. 84 3. 2 9. 7 3. 75 1997 182. 7 43. 78 3. 4 31. 82 9. 12 32. 69 23. 81 6. 49 2. 33 4. 4 2. 24 3. 81 12.

Dostoevsky: Psychiatric Genius?

The go for Crime and Punishment and its author, Fyodor Dostoevsky, both came many another(prenominal) years before their time. In the book, Dostoevsky solely the way describes the medical disorders we now know today as schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and dissociative identity disorder which is as well known as multiple personality disorder. The book was first published in 1866, however, schizophrenia was first described officially in 1887 by Dr.Emile Kraepelin and not given the name schizophrenia until Eugene Bleuler coined the term in 1911 (The History of Schizophrenia). And it was not until the late 19th and early 20th century that Pierre Janet coined the term dissociative identity (Pendergrast). Bipolar Disorder was also a relatively new disorder being that it was officially described in 1854 (A Brief History of Bipolar Disorder).The share of Raskolnikov is a respectable example of these three disorders because of the way he acts towards others or towards himself and then suddenly has a change of feelings or mindset. Schizophrenia is defined as a public type of psychosis, characterized by abnormalities in perception, content of thought, and thought processes (hallucinations and delusions) and by extensive withdrawal of interest from other people and the outside world, with excessive focusing on ones own mental life (WebMD LLC).In the beginning of the book, the narrator talks well-nigh how Raskolnikov has become so completely absorbed in himself, and isolated from his fellows that he dreaded meeting, not only his landlady, but anyone at all (Dostoevsky 1). This is the first sign of schizophrenia that Dostoevsky shows in Raskolnikov, it is obvious that Raskolnikov has become isolated and does not want to be around any other people. Next, Raskolnikovs illness is almost completely caused by his hallucinations, delusions, and hallucinations.This is seen in part two, chapter one after Raskolnikov has committed the murders He sit down down on the sofa i n exhaustion and was at once shaken by another unbearable fit of shiveringhe cover himself up with his winter coat and once more sank into drowsiness and delirium. (92). This is also seen in chapter three after he returns to his room and has a dream slightly his landlady being beaten, He was not completely unconscious, however, all the time he was ill he was in a feverish state, sometimes delirious, sometimes half(a) conscious. (120).Raskolnikov continues to focus on his own mental state passim the novel and he does not truly become well until the end of the story when he confesses, resists, and becomes educated. Raskolnikov also has many symptoms of dissociative identity disorder, which is defined as a severe form of dissociation, a mental process, which produces a lack of connection in a persons thoughts, memories, feelings, actions, or sense of identity. Dissociative identity disorder is thought to stem from trauma experienced by the person with the disorder (WebMD LLC).Ras kolnikovs jibe has obviously stemmed from the trauma Raskolnikov experienced after having committed the murders which is a major sign of dissociative identity disorder, and there are instances where Raskolnikov will do something and immediately completely regret his decision such as when he gives money to Marmeladov and then wants to go up to the room to take his money hindquarters Raskolnikov had time to put his hand into his pocket, to snatch up the coppers he had received in exchange for his rouble in the tavern and to lay them unnoticed on the window.Afterwards, on the stairs he changed his mind and would have gone back (Dostoevsky 26-27). Rakolnikov also has a form of dissociation because he gets into moods when he is thinking about certain things but disregarding other important details such as closing the door at the pawnbrokers, locking his own door the darkness of the murder, and checking his clothes for blood. A third disorder that Dostoevsky describes through the chara cter of Raskolnikov is bipolar disorder.Bipolar disorder is a major affective disorder, or mood disorder, characterized by dramatic mood swings. Bipolar disorder is a serious condition, when mania causes sleeplessness, sometimes for days, along with hallucinations, psychosis, grandiose delusions, and/or paranoid rage (WebMD LLC). Raskolnikov has many mood swings throughout the story. One of the first examples is when he is debating whether he should go talk to his friend Razumikhin, he changes his mind several times and then decides not to see him.Raskolnikov also switches moods about his act that he is planning to commit which we come to know is the murder of Alonya Ivanova. He switches his decision several times and finally commits to killing her when he finds out that she will be alone at seven o clock, he felt suddenly in his whole being that he had no more freedom of thought, no will, and that e reallything was suddenly and irrevocable decided (Dostoevsky 65). We also know tha t Raskolnikov suffered from hallucinations, delusions, and paranoid rage that he used to kill Alonya.These hallucinations included the dream of the horse getting beaten, the dream that his landlady was being beaten, and the nightmare when Raskolnikov is trying to kill the pawnbroker but she does not die, she only laughs. Dostoevsky helped to pave the way for other doctors and scientists to discover all of the symptoms of these mental illnesses we now know as schizophrenia, dissociative identity disorder, and bipolar disorder. This shows how much Dostoevsky knew about human nature. He was able to pick out tendencies that many mentally ill people have.Not only did he describe these three, he also described alcoholism very accurately by using the character Marmeladov to show that alcoholism only leads to suffering and the more one continues to drink, the more suffering they endure, the more I drink, the more I feel it. Thats why I drink too. I try to find sympathy and feeling in drink. I drink so that I may suffer twice as much And as though in despair he laid his head down on the table (14). Dostoevsky was a very extraordinary man and he gave mankind many contributions.Psychology was an important part of Crime and Punishment, but it is also clear that Dostoevsky is a very intelligent author and incorporates many different themes into his works. ? Works Cited A Brief History of Bipolar Disorder. Todays Caregiver. 2009. http//www. caregiver. com/channels/bipolar/articles/brief_history. htm. Dostoevsky, Fyodor. Crime and Punishment. Ed. Bantam Classic Reissue. untried York Bantam Dell, 2003. The History of Schizophrenia. Schizophrenia. com. 2004. http//www. schizophrenia. com/history. htm .Pendergrast, Mark. Victims of Memory. Upper Access Books, 1996. Schizophrenia. Dictionary. com. 2009. http//dictionary. reference. com/browse/schizophrenia. WebMD LLC. Bipolar Disorder. WebMD. 2009. http//www. webmd. com/depression/guide/bipolar-disorder-manic-depression. WebMD LLC. Dissociative Identity Disorder. WebMD. 2009. http//www. webmd. com/mental-health/dissociative-identity-disorder-multiple-personality-disorder. WebMD LLC. Medical Dictionary Schizophrenia. WebMD. 2009. http//dictionary. webmd. com/terms/schizophrenia.

Individual in Society

Comparative essay The elective the individual in society explores the conflict between autonomy and the social conventions that inscribe human behaviour. All societies beg conformity, and fear of rejection can allow an individual to compromise their values in order to be accepted. The social constraints of any society can tho be understood in spite of appearance their context and both Persuasion and Muriels wedding explore the superficial paradigms of brotherhood, friendship and social class.The restrictive Georgian society in Persuasion where patriarchal institutions position wo men as objects of economic exchange serves to limit their individuality, whilst Muriels wedding offers insight into the social codes that confine the individual both emotionally and physically. When comparing both texts, the fickle nature of romance is incoherent outside of its contextual parameters. This essay in any case highlights the distinctive discrimination between the individuals attributes com pared to other characters. In Persuasion by Jane Austen emotional and physical boundaries are placed by society restricting individuals such as Anne.Superficial values including class, status, marriage and appearance are held with high importance for many characters such as for Sir Walter Elliot. This is shown through vanity was the beginning and the end of Sir Walter Elliots character. Vanity of person and of stead. The repetition Vanity is theatrical roled to exemplify Sir Walters pride and stupidity of person meaning appearance and beauty and situation meaning status. By her use of irony in his comment Anne gives a subtle moral judgement on Sir Walter, and all who possess his qualities of vanity and stupidity.In Muriels Wedding by PJ Hogans also depicts the importance of superficial values such as reputation among the characters. This is shown when Muriels friend Nicole uses satire We dont want you hanging around us anymore. The use of satire adds humour to criticize Muriels friend exaggerated stupidity. Muriels friends continuously worry about the physical appearance as shown in Weve told you a thousand times how to do your hair but you never listen. You never wear the right clothes. Cheryl uses 1st person and 2nd person to signify the difference between them and Muriel, highlighting her isolation from the rest of the group.This adds peer pressure for Muriel to conform to be accepted by the popular group. In Muriels wedding the characters only stripping pleasure through false appearances of marriage they believe it symbolise to them that they are successful because they found someone with high status and appearance. Irony and satire is used to ridicule Sophie Lees foolishness that even though her husband cheated on her she continues to appreciate him because of his appearance and status as shown in Youv got to find people in your own level. Like i found chook.Hes on my level. Marrying him was the happiest day of my life. I love him so much. That bast ard Ill show him. Ill go on this holiday and sleep with a thousand men. Muriel is influenced by her and societies expectations of marriage. This is shown when David asks what kind of person marries someone they dont love? The use of rhetorical question makes the sense of hearing consider that Muriel only married because she is obsessed with the appearance of marriage. Marriage in this film equates to acceptance from society because it reflects success.This limits her individuality until the final scenes her true sense of charge comes back after her mother dies that she finally realises that she has not been truthful she repeats the use of first person i to signify the continues lies she has told i cant unify to you, David. I have to stop lying now. Ive told so many lies. I dont love you. In the end she accepts her individuality and is positive(p) indoors herself and says goodbye to different locations of Porpoise Spit to symbolise that she is free from all the emotional restr ictions that Porpoise Spit had placed on her.Unlike Muriel, Rhonda is confident with herself and does not attempt to run into in. She is different from the girls physically and emotionally. The Sophie Lee characters wear similar bright coloured clothes the flamboyant colours of their costume may reflect that they are want attention and the similarity in design and colours between the girls dresses, hair styles, personality show they are attempting to belong in a group and shows no individuality. Whereas in contrasts to Rhondas dark black cropped hair is in difference to Sophie lee, her friends and Muriel.Her character also depicts that she is an individual as she is outspoken and honest. This is shown when she says Nicoles having an affair with Chook. Muriel precept them fucking in the laundry room on your wedding day. Stick your present up your ass, Tania Id rather swallow razor blades than have a drink with you. Oh, by the way Im not alone. Im with Muriel. Her confidence is p ortrayed through the use of coarse, upfront language and that she tells the truth.The symbol razor blades also portrays this confidence that she is so confident that she looks at them as beneath her she exaggerates her opinion of them through this symbol. In conclusion there are many pressures within each society in Muriels wedding and Persuasion which confine the individuals Anne and Muriel. There are many factors considered that show Muriel and Anne as individual. Anne does not derive the same pleasure as others in her Georgian society from superficial values such as status, wealth and appearance.In an often satirical portrait of the men and, women Austen subtly and ironically points out faults in the system, cosmetic surgery questions about the values of English society and the power structure of the country. Similarly Muriel is also an individual as she does not belong but attempts to conform within the late 20th century suburbia social codes. At the final scenes of the movie she realises that she has told many lies and accepts her individuality. Muriel is an outcast and an individual in the initial scenes of the film. She attempts to conform within the group.This is portrayed when the group rejects her because she is so different from them but Muriel says Listen, i know Im not normal, but im tryin to change. This depicts her desperation to be in the group and low self-esteem, as she even considers herself as worthless using the description not normal. Patriarchal society in which men held the economic and social power. In restrictive Georgian society women attempt to gain a livelihood through a successful marriage which constraints Anne to tie her true love Wentworth as he does not have status nor wealth.

Can society fully control individuals?

Although society sets a myriad of rules and regulations that ostensibly circumscribes your actions, it is our choice whether or not to adapt to these rules. Convincing examples to demonstrates this founds ar found in A Dolls House by Henrik Ibsen, To wipe out a Mockingbird by Harper leeward and Galileos choices of defying norms in the field of science.Noras decision to leave Torvald and seek her independence in the play A Dolls House by Henrik Ibsen explicitly demonstrates that, no matter of what society dictates, choices are always present ot the individual. Nora was one of many women who suffered from the male supremacy during the Victorian Era. Her husband, Torvald, would call her demeaning names such as squirrel and favorite and expects her to obey every command because society dictates that she should. However, Nora defied her social norms and left Torvald to achieve her independence an act considered to be unthinkable at the time. Thus demonstrates that decisions are cont ingent upon(p) upon individuals, not society.Another example which shows that our choices area solely determined by ourselves is that of Atticus and his decision to defend a black man, Tom Robinson, in To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee. Atticus, who lives in a town inhabited by a racist, white community, decided to do what he thinks is skillful and defended a black man named Tom Robinson, who was spurious accused of raping a white girl. Despite Atticuss cognizance of the vicious calumny that he will be subjected to by society, he nevertheless made the decision which he considered is right and defended Tom Robinson. This further shows that decision are purely found on the individual.In addition, the fact that decisions of the individual can never be fully controlled by society is shown in the field of science, particularly through Galileos choice of having a heliocentric view on the universe. Galileo was a scientist who, after adequate research into the field, maintained that, co ntrary to what the church and Aristotle believed, the sun is in the eye of the universe. At the time, society strongly believed that the earth is the center of the universe and considered every other scientist who said otherwise to be mocking religion and thus be punishment. Because of his theory, Galileo was convicted of heresy and consequently sentence to home imprisonment. Surely, it was Galileos decision to voice his theory which, rather interestingly, happened to be correct all alongThe aforementioned examples are just three a vast number of community who decided to go against society wishes. If anything, these people exemplify the human nature of exploring the unknown, of thinking deprecative outside the box and of seeking dreams regardless of the perils and obstacles on the way, these are the people who make progress possible without such individuals, society would be a accruement of robots that operate based on norms and that would never be able to think, speak or act ou t anything that does not fit this norm. Quite simply, it is these people that liberated the oppressed and illuminated the path of knowledge.